Future of Cheetahs and Lions: Survival Scenarios – Part 4

The purpose of this fourth in the series of presentations is to examine the possible future scenarios available for the two cats which we have been using as an example. We have been following the geology and climate effects which are the basis for the ecologies for the last 20,000 years. We have used the cheetah and lion species to see the effects of changes in climate, geology on their adaptability behavior. The story of the cats is an analogy for all of the codependent species who parallel the cats and their experience. This includes people.

The cover picture is a balloon high view of the Serengeti plane with no animals to be seen. The Great Migration had passed. This may be the eventual appearance of the planes after the catastrophic loss of the animals. Such an occurrence happened in the Maasai Mara in the 1960s as a result of diseases spread by domestic livestock. It was recovered by aggressive human intervention. It is coming again and when lost it will not be recovered.

Cheetah and to a lesser extent lions have behavior and genetic characteristics. They have:

  • Social Resilience: As apex, group-living (pride) predators, lions are behaviorally plastic. They can cooperatively hunt a vast array of prey—from small antelopes to massive buffaloes—giving them a broader dietary cushion than cheetahs as ecosystems shift. 
  • The Megafauna Dependency: Lions depend heavily on large herbivore biomass (like wildebeest, zebra, and buffalo). Over the next millennium, as aridification reduces grass quality and water availability, these large migratory herds are projected to contract sharply. A collapse in mega-herbivore populations will trigger severe pride localized die-offs.
  • The “Fortress Conservation” Reliance: Because free-roaming lions pose a direct threat to human life and livestock, their long-term survival will entirely depend on fenced and intensively managed reserves. They will likely cease to exist as a truly wild, free-ranging ecological force, surviving instead as highly managed “mega-zoo” populations. [1]
  • •Reached migratory and reproductive stagnation by ending at a dead end of land
  • •Failed to develop quick adaptation or mutation to survive in new infrastructure 
  • •They are vulnerable to competition and disease

ALTERNATIVES to EXTINCTION

There are various scenarios for the support of cheetah and lions. I can think of at least the following four options. Re-wild Southwest USA. Genetically redesign the cheetah. Capture and preserve these animals in compatible, tourist friendly Africa. Capture to hold in zoos awaiting rerelease to the wild because of technologic change in human behavior. These scenarios are expanded below by scenario listings.

Scenario 1, Rewilding: two pathways

  1. It is possible to aggressively attempt rewilding of Africa which has been subverted to farming and mining. As mentioned above the Maasai Mara was helped by controlling the intermingling and vaccination of livestock thereby preventing occurrence and spread of diseases. There are other areas in the world where this has been done e.g. Spain, and Argentina.
  2. They could be reintroduced in the Southwest Planes of America along with other African ungulates for prey. Cheetah are originally from the planes of North America. Their predators such as lions and hyena are not present, the prong horn antelope would not be a threat. This could be very successful. Return the cheetah to the planes of North America however, this suggestion would be very controversial and politically unlikely,

A cheetah chasing an antelope across a dusty, dry landscape with sparse vegetation.
Fig. 1, This AI generated rewilding illustration looks so natural because it is. Cheetah did live in North America and preyed upon the pronghorn antelope ~100K years ago.

A divided landscape showing a Poaching Zone with cattle herders and a sign, and a Conservation Zone featuring crops, solar panels, and wildlife including giraffes and elephants against a city skyline in the background.
Without rewilding Africa will look like this (Much of our last 2024 trip already looked just like this.)

Scenario 2: Gene editing and cloning

The cheetah is an evolutionary specialist built entirely for speed in the daylight. This hyper-specialization makes it incredibly fragile under the pressure of rapid ecological shifts: The following bullet points project their future.

  • The Nocturnal Trap: Cheetahs are traditionally daytime (diurnal) hunters to avoid nocturnal apex predators like lions and hyenas. However, with rising temperatures in Southeast Africa, cheetahs are forced to shift their activity to cooler twilight and nighttime hours. This behavioral shift places them in direct, fatal contact with lions, leading to higher cub mortality and increased theft of their kills (kleptoparasitism). 
  • Genetic Dead End: Due to ancient and modern population bottlenecks, which was the topic of Part 1 of this series, wild cheetahs suffer from extreme lack of genetic diversity. This results in high percentages of abnormal sperm, low reproductive success, and a highly fragile immune system unable to adapt to novel diseases. [1, 2]
  • Habitat Fragmentation: Cheetahs require vast open and unfenced home ranges to hunt successfully and evade larger predators. As human development fragments Southeast Africa, cheetahs are pushed out of protected areas into hazardous farmland, accelerating human-wildlife conflict.

To avoid these traps another option might be to genetically create a similar parallel species. With lots of genetic manipulation it might be possible to cross breed the cheetah with American cats like the puma, cougar, or jaguar. This would require extensive genetic CRYSPR manipulation and IVF.

A cheetah stands amidst tall grass and shrubs, looking directly at the camera with a curious expression.
Fig. 2, A cheetah stands alert in its natural savanna environment.
Adult cheetah standing on dry grassland with scattered bushes in the background
Fig. 3, This is an AI generated Illustration of hybridized Cheetah/Jaguar. I projected heavier build, larger face for stronger biting and a different spot pattern for better camouflage. It appears similar to a leopard. It won’t be as fast as a native but will be more powerful and stealthier.

The Cheetah will not Outrun Climate and Competition

Make all animals running with motion blur
This AI constructed illustration represents the cheetah chased by its foes of climate change and competition. The oversized spotted hyena represent the foes, however, this may actually happen. The hyena, as generalists, are the most populous and successful predators of all of Southeast Africa. They do prey on cat cubs and capture prey from the cheetah and lions.

The Lion: has Formidable Strength but is Trapped by size and caloric needs

Lions possess a greater buffer against change due to their social structures and physical dominance, but their massive resource requirements present a distinct bottleneck: [1]

  • Social Resilience: As apex, group-living (pride) predators, lions are behaviorally plastic. They can cooperatively hunt a vast array of prey—from small antelopes to massive buffaloes—giving them a broader dietary cushion than cheetahs as ecosystems shift. 
  • The Megafauna Dependency: Lions depend heavily on large herbivore biomass (like wildebeest, zebra, and buffalo). Over the next millennium, as aridification reduces grass quality and water availability, these large migratory herds are projected to contract sharply. A collapse in mega-herbivore populations will trigger severe pride localized die-offs.
  • The “Fortress Conservation” Reliance: Because free-roaming lions pose a direct threat to human life and livestock, their long-term survival will entirely depend on fenced, intensively managed reserves. They will likely cease to exist as a truly wild, free-ranging ecological force, surviving instead as highly managed “mega-zoo” populations. [1]
A male lion standing in tall grass, looking attentively while near a carcass.
Lion finishing off a meal of buffalo. A large male can eats minimally 25 pounds/day, maximally  88 to 100 pounds of meat.

Scenario 3: Capture , Confinement and Preservation

A close-up of a cheetah with distinctive black spots, gazing intently towards the camera amidst a natural background.
Cheetah in Naples Zoo today. Captured. Not running, hunting, not reproducing.
Two lions sleeping close to each other on a wooden surface, with their eyes closed and fur gently illuminated by sunlight.

Two lions also in the Naples zoo. They are just about as useful as the cheetah next door.

SURVIVABILITY PROJECTION

The survival potential for both cheetahs and lions over the next 1,000 years is highly compromised, with the cheetah facing a much steeper, more immediate threat of extinction. While both are apex carnivores, their divergent biological traits, hunting strategies, and genetic health mean they will handle the looming desertification and human encroachment in drastically different ways. Table 2. shows the current status of the cheetah and lion.

Here is a projection matrix of the next millennium. It outlines how these variables are expected to interact:

Biological Metric Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus)Lion (Panthera leo)
Current IUCN StatusVulnerable (Declining rapidly; under 7,000 wild individuals)Vulnerable (Declining; roughly 20,000–25,000 wild individuals)
1,000-Year Survival PotentialExtremely Low (High probability of wild extinction within centuries)Low to Moderate (Dependent on intensive, fenced human management)
Climate Change VulnerabilitySevere (Thermal stress forces overlapping schedules with larger predators)Moderate (Droughts impact reproductive cycles and megafauna prey)
Genetic AdaptabilityCritically Poor (Extreme inbreeding depression from historical bottlenecks)Moderate (Fragmented populations but retain higher overall diversity)
Table 2. Today’s Survival Matrix: Cheetah vs. Lion

FUTURE PROJECTIONS

In preparation for rescue considerations and based on current climate models and evolutionary biology, the next 1,000 years in Southeast Africa will be defined by rapid, human-driven climate changes and artificial selection. Extreme weather events will force animals to adapt at an unprecedented pace. Generalists will dominate while specialized species face localized extinctions.

Time (Years from Now)Relative Humidity (Z-Axis)Animal Adaptability & Response (Y-Axis)Environmental Context
0 – 100Highly Variable / Drop in Soil MoistureExtreme Stress (Behavioral Shifts)Rapid global warming. Severe droughts alternate with intense floods. Animals alter migration routes and nocturnal behaviors.
100 – 300Decreasing / AridificationHigh Selection Pressure (Micro-evolution)Expanding desertification. Small, fast-reproducing generalist species rapidly adapt, while large mammals face steep declines.
300 – 600Stabilizing at Lower BaselineModerate (Homogenized Ecosystems)New ecological baselines establish. Highly adaptable “weed species” (rodents, certain birds, insects) dominate the landscape.
600 – 1,000Low to ModerateHigh (Stabilized Novel Adaptations)Long-term evolutionary stabilizing. Surviving fauna exhibit permanent genetic shifts in heat tolerance and water conservation.
Table 1, Time related to relative humidity and animal adaptability. Environmental context supplements extant conditions.

The Outlook

Within the next 100 to 200 years, unmanaged wild cheetahs are predicted to go extinct, leaving only highly inbred, artificially sustained captive or semi-captive populations. Lions will likely persist longer due to their dominance and economic value to ecotourism, but by the year 3000, they will exist purely within heavily fortified, human-engineered ecological islands across Southeast Africa like today’s rhinos.

Portend for Humans

Human genetic diversity is actually quite low compared to many other species. All modern humans stem from a very, very small population that lived perhaps 900K-800K years ago. It is also suggested that another genetic bottleneck was created by the Toba volcanic Super Eruption 75K years ago. Chimpanzees and gorillas actually have greater genetic diversity within their species than humans do.

There are multiple risks to which we have exposed our species. We are nearly twins of one another. With a little planning we can donate blood and with meds even donate organs among one another. Because of our technical skills we are susceptible to pandemics which we can spread rapidly across the globe. This is all too similar to the cheetah.

Here are our alternatives:

We need to increase our management of the planet. We have already made giant strides in terraforming Earth by farming. There are two paths to complete the task. Rewild or reengineer are the real alternatives. We can’t continue to stumble along as we have done in the past. That option has gotten us to our current crisis point. Rewilding may return us back to where we were two hundred years ago. Reengineering can take us to a place where we want to be. What alternatives do you have in mind?

Based on observations made in Africa our next posting, Part 5, will dive deeper into the potential overturn of one of the foundations of biology; Darwin’s Theory of Evolution.

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#lions #cheetahs #survival #rewilding #zoo #reengineer #Africa #genetics #hybridization #competition #geology #evolution #adaptation

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Cheetahs and Lions Trapped by Time and Place – The Theory of Specialization Extinction – Part 3

Cheetah standing in grassy savanna with trees and antelope in background

INTRODUCTION

This presentation is the third in a series of blogs that uses the example of Cheetahs and Lions to show the survivability effects of evolving specialization. The first in the series lays the foundation of geography, climate and time. The second compared two African cats; Lions and Cheetahs. This presentation introduces the concept of traps. The “traps” are made of time, location, resources and specializations. They put these cats at risk for survival. Survival of the species depends on behavioral modification, physiologic adaptation and selection by desirable mating. We may have exposed ourselves to the same traps. This is not about mechanical traps. These are more insidious.

In The opening video clip – The “traps in this presentation are UNINTENTIONALLY generated by the animal’s remarkable behavior and adaptations. They are more SIGNIFICANT than physical traps

Traps are the delimiters that block biologic adaptation to a changing environment. Inability to overcome traps leads to extinction. It is not about survival of the fittest. It is about survival of the most adaptable. This is the reason to study the survival of these two cats. Understanding the pitfalls will reflect on the survival of everything, specifically us.

In order to discuss unintentional consequences of behavior leading to traps, I suggest that we review of the work of the naturalists of the 18th century. Several theories had been proposed. The most notable is the Theory of Evolution. Darwin and Wallace proposed the foundational ideas. Survival of the fittest forces the origin of species. Additionally, isolation promotes differentiation. In the view of these observers of nature, there is a progressive change in the survival of the majority. I propose an alternative view of the Darwinian theory. Let’s call this the Theory of Specialized Extinction.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION

I respect the pioneering publication of the books of Charles Darwin. These include The Beagle diary (1839), Origin of the Species (1859) and The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). I first read these 66 years ago when I was in high school. Here are the tenants of his theory. My comments are in italics.

Overproduction: Organisms produce more offspring than their local environment can support, which leads to competition for limited resources. Alternatively, it may lead to cooperation, revolution or migration.
Variation: Individuals within a single species naturally display a wide range of variation in their physical traits, behaviors, and genetic makeup. This suggests that there are mutations in the population.
Inheritance: Many of these unique variations are heritable—meaning they can be passed down from parents to their offspring. This does not take into consideration dominant and recessive genes.
Differential Survival & Reproduction: Individuals possessing traits best adapted to their specific environment (“survival of the fittest”) are more likely to survive threats and successfully reproduce. If individuals are highly specialized they may not be able to adapt to the changing environment.
Descent with Modification: Over vast expanses of time, these advantageous traits become more common in the population. Gradually, this accumulation of changes can lead to the emergence of entirely new species. The rate of accumulation of traits depends on the complexity of the organism. The accumulation of traits does not necessarily lead to new species but may lead to species vulnerabilities.

Most of Darwin’s work suggests a time line with a steady progression of change, most of which was deemed to be an improvement. In prospect most of his writing appears to be intrinsically biased. Yes, there is change, however, it is coincidental with “implicit bias”. It does not confirm causality. Additionally, an apex implies that there is a narrowing of differentiation that is progressively better. It presumes the philosophical question of a decision tree which has an apex. It does not imply value to alternative views.

Although it is implied, there is no proof of progressive improvement in the Darwinian model. In fact, as we rapidly degrade the environment the apex creatures may be the first to go extinct. Depending on your point of view, does increased specialization imply improvement or loss of adaptive capacity? In fact does life and specialization run contrary to the laws of thermodynamics. The second law predicts disorganization.

A horizontal continuum for example could be applied to the time line of species differentiation. Here is a visual representation of a relationship between and among animal adaptability and humidity during the recent 20,000-year history of the area. I picked humidity because, as you could see in our previous presentations, desertification was the most prominent aspect of the environments we explored.

3D scatter plot showing vertebrate adaptability index versus climate matrix over a timeline from 20,000 years before present to the present. The plot features colored data points indicating adaptability levels across different time periods.

X-Axis (Time): Spans from \(20,000\) years ago (Last Glacial Maximum) to the present day.
Y-Axis (Animal Adaptability): Represents the biological versatility and survival threshold of the regional fauna.
Z-Axis (Relative Humidity / Moisture): Represents the effective regional moisture, tracking the African Humid Period (approx. \(15,000\) to \(5,000\) years ago) and the subsequent Holocene aridification

Please see the extensive discussion of this in the following posting titled Exploring Animal Adaptability in Southeast Africa.

The 20,000-Year Timeline

  • 20,000 to 15,000 Years Ago (Last Glacial Maximum):
    • Z (Humidity): Low. The climate was cool and highly arid.
    • Y (Adaptability): Low to Moderate. Only highly resilient generalist species (versatile feeders and water-independent grazers) persisted in the harsh, patchy grassland habitats. [1, 2, 3]
  • 15,000 to 5,000 Years Ago (African Humid Period):
    • Z (Humidity): High. Monsoon rains expanded into the southern tropics, creating vast, resource-rich savannas and lakes (such as those in the Lake Malawi basin).
    • Y (Adaptability): High. The lush, stable environment allowed for an expansion of both generalist and highly specialized animal species. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
  • 5,000 Years Ago to Present Day (Progressive Aridification):
    • Z (Humidity): Decreasing. Regional humidity dropped significantly, causing a return to arid or semi-arid conditions.
    • Y (Adaptability): Bifurcating. Highly specialized taxa (niche foragers) faced extinction, while the surviving fauna demonstrated exceptional, evolutionarily “winnowed” adaptability. [1, 2]

Theory of SPECIALIZED extinction

Specialized Extinction is progressive reduction of life forms. It is the unspecified opposite of Darwin’s theory. Please recall that Darwin’s work of the mid 1800s predated the current concepts of ecology, genetics, statistics, modern scientific method, advances in understanding of natural history, microbiology, plate tectonics, climate change, extraterrestrial incidents, human behavior, etc.

We are experiencing the reverse of the origin of the species. This is the loss of the species variations. Species vary in response to environmental pressure. Without necessity there is no invention. With environmental change only the adaptable will survive.

MASS EXTINCTIONS

During the ice age animals located in water compromised areas or in cold climates faced environmental pressure. Many were not capable of adapting with sufficient rapidity to the changes. The advancing cold wall of ice combined with the massive dust storms which ripped across the deserts of the planes starved, froze or buried millions as they struggled to compete for diminishing food and water. These climatic events resulted in loss of thousands of species, of fauna and flora of the northern continental masses.

This process of extermination was exaggerated by bottleneck effect and genetic drift.

Illustration of genetic drift in frog populations, showing a funnel shape with green and red frogs at the top, labeled with 'death' and 'invasion,' leading to a diverse green population at the bottom.
Fig 1
Illustration explaining the bottleneck effect in population genetics, showing three stages: original population in a bottle, a bottleneck event reducing the population, and the surviving population in a cup, with a graph depicting population size over time.
Fig 2

Fig 1 and Fig 2 are two variations on population behavior that limit the genetic pool of diversified genomes.

In Fig. 1 This can happen when the genetic pool is insufficient to maintain variance. The largest constituent group are light and dark green. If the orange portion dies and the purple portion does not invade, then the survivors can only reproduce mixed green progeny.

In Fig. 2 In the biologic bottleneck only a few members of the population escape. In this case the green did not pass the bottleneck. Those that did act are founders of a new community with a more exclusive population. Since only one yellow member passed the bottleneck it represents an extinction effect unless it can hybridize with the blue members. If not it will die thus ending that part of the population. Hybridization may result in a recovery of the population that will not be exclusively blue. Alternatively, with recessive traits the population will recover with a Mendelian result.

The well known traps are outlined below. I suggest that the study of these traps may challenge the initial concepts theorized by Darwin.

TRAPS DEFINED

By specialization animal abilities to avoid these traps are disadvantaged.

Specialization Trap is where the animals of a species undergoes physical evolution to match their environment. This results in highly efficient but physically fragile animals who cannot cope with the changes in their environment that occur faster than they can adapt. This includes many species and may be a natural process. Loss of one non-adapting species makes room for another. This is consistent with Darwinian “Natural Selection”.

Genetic Bottleneck Trap results in reduced adaptability. When the population reaches a point of limited genetic variation there is insufficient capacity to adapt to environmental changes, such as climate change or new diseases.

Genetic Drift Trap results in lack of genetic diversity.

Declining Prey Base Trap is a broad based result of all the regional population of mutually entangled species with an extremely low general DNA variance.

Habitat Fragmentation Trap prevents the massive, free-roaming across territories. Without corridors, species cannot migrate to compatible environments. Conversely, species variants can immigrate into territories thereby promoting hybridization.

Daylight Hunting Trap Prevents animals from night hunting while hot, dry daytime conditions become intolerable

Human-Wildlife Conflict. Genocidal hunting, trapping and habitat destruction by farming and mining at industrial scale combine to make the ultimate trap.

CHEETAH

Cheetah are likely a distinct, naturally evolved species (Acinonyx jubatus) belonging to the small-cat lineage (Felinae). Their closest living relatives are the puma (mountain lion) and the jaguarundi. They cannot be naturally hybridized with other members of the Felinea because they are just too different. They split from the rest of the cat family tree millions of years ago and are the sole members of their own unique genus, Acinonyx.

  • They are not related to the Pantherinae (Lions, which started in Africa)
  • Cheetah existed secondary to late Pleistocene bottleneck extinctions 100K to 12K years ago.

Cheetahs are believed to have survived the two ice age catastrophic population bottlenecks that nearly drove the species to extinction. [1, 2] The root causes of cheetah’s problems were the two historic climatic bottlenecks plus their great speed. They were able to quickly run ahead of their competitors and ranged widely looking for prey. They out ran their competitors and extended beyond their base population. As small groups continuously separated from their peers they formed new island clusters. These founder effect groups were cut off from hybridization and experienced genetic drift. In summary:

  • They are not related to the Pantherinae (Lions, which started in Africa)
  • Cheetah existed secondary to late Pleistocene bottleneck extinctions 100K to 12K years ago.
  • Cheetah developed in the Asia/Americas and are related to domestic cats. 
  • Extremely inbred with depressed dominant traits.
  • They are all near identical clones: Completely depleted of variation in their genomes
  • They are experiencing founder effect. Africa is their CULMINATING POINT

LION

As a member of the big cat family these animals were born and bred in Africa. Modern lions diverged and began to leave its earliest fossilized footprints in East Africa around 2 to 3 million years ago. Through a combination of geographic refugia, extreme dietary flexibility, and evolutionary teamwork the lions thrived in the dry, ice free planes of Africa.

Cheetah and Lion – SUBJECTED TO time, relative humidity and LEVEL of adaptability

Over the last 20,000 years in Southeast Africa, climate shifts drastically altered humidity and ecosystems. The region swung between severe arid phases (like the Last Glacial Maximum) and the highly humid African Humid Period. In that period animal adaptability peaked. Generalist species thrived by adjusting to habitats, while specialists faced selective extinction. [1, 2, 3, 4] Some mammalian species failed to track their preferred climates over the last several thousand years. The failure to either migrate or adapt quickly may be their obstacle to survive. There is a significant time lag between climate change and species’ responses. These two cats were able to survive. The African Saber-toothed Cats, Scimitar Cats, Eastern Koppard and the Giant Cheetahs did not make it through the last 50,000 to 10,000 years.

Below is a four-column table of paleoclimatic and evolutionary timeline outlining the historical shifts:[1, 2]

Time (Years Ago) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]Relative Humidity (Z-Axis)Animal Adaptability & Response (Y-Axis)Environmental Context
20,000 – 15,000Very Low(Dry / Arid)High (Specialist Die-off / Generalist Shift)Last Glacial Maximum. Equatorial lakes dried, forcing animals to adapt to sparse resources.
15,000 – 11,500Increasing(Transition)Moderate to High (Adaptive radiation)Deglaciation. Climate instability introduced genetic variance and rapid adaptation (“variability selection”).
11,500 – 5,000Very High(Wet / Humid)High (Biodiversity Boom)African Humid Period. Savannas expanded, and water-reliant generalist species thrived and spread.
5,000 – 2,000Decreasing(Drying Trend)High (Behavioral Adaptability)Monsoons weakened, leading to progressive desertification and forcing animals/humans into complex, mixed-habitat strategies.
2,000 – PresentModerate / VariableHighModern climate regimes. Continuous micro-adaptations are documented, though global warming increasingly tests limits.
Table 2. Variables and Environmental Context

This is the scenario of failure to survive, the theory should be called “THE THEORY of SPECIALIZED EXTINCTION” The tenants of this are

  • Reproduction with wide ranging genetic adaptability
  • Environmental change
  • Differential reproduction based on past environments
  • Extinction by environmental change

THE EFFECTS OF THIS ON PEOPLE TODAY

A very small hominoid population (likely Homo heidelbergensis or Homo erectus) expanded before 900,000-800,000 years ago. It underwent a massive glacial bottleneck which lasted for 100,000 years. The population was reduced to ~1200 individuals. This lengthy event killed off so much of the population that it irreversibly reduced the genetic diversity of the species. The effects of that have persisted until today. Even though chimpanzees and gorillas might look similar to us, they have many more times the genetic diversity within their species than humans.

CONCLUSION:

We can conclude that developing survival strength through unique specialization may be a death trap. To do this we followed cheetahs and lions as they adapt and survived through the last 20,000 years. There was an entire eco system which followed the same path. We should pay more attention to the generalists. Survival by adaptation to environmental change is more advantageous than specialization. Ability to change our environment may be our only survival option.

In our next posting (Exploring Animal Adaptability in Southeast Africa) we will try to project the future of the fauna for the next 50 years. See you there !

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REFERENCES

uhttps://www.science.org/content/article/carnivorous-ballet-helps-cheetahs-coexist-lions

uhttps://www.wildlifenomads.com/blog/cheetah-facts/

uhttp://www.macroevolution.net/natural-selection.html

Adaptive introgression

uhttps://evolution.berkeley.edu/evo-news/will-evolution-doom-the-cheetah/

uhttps://evolution.berkeley.edu/triggering-adaptive-radiation/

uhttps://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolution-101/macroevolution/

# Cheetah #lions #traps #genetic drift #bottleneck #adaptability #evolution #environment #founder effect #survival

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Adaptations of Cheetahs and Lions in Shared Habitats -Part 2

Lion lying on a mound with cheetah running in the background during sunset
Lion lying on a mound with cheetah running in the background during sunset
In this savannah sunset illustration the lion rests calmly. The cheetah dashes across the plane. What is the reason for these differing behaviors? (Find the answers below.)

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this posting is to show how these two animal species have evolved, adapted and competed in the same environment. Have you seen to previous post in this in the series? Glacer and Plate blog. Cheetah and lions are superficially similar but so different in their behavior and genetics. Their behaviors may have determine their ultimate fates. This is part 2 of a series on adaptation and survival in Southeast Africa. This portends the future of two species of cats. I used these beautiful animals as an analogue to all animals in all environments.

More vocabulary: Founder effect, Genetic drift. Evolution

THE CATS

A cheetah standing in tall grass, looking back at the camera with a relaxed expression.
Cheetah
A male lion resting on green grass, with a full mane and an alert expression.
Lion

CAT SPECIFICATIONS (Table 1.)

Wt. ——————— 35 to 60 K

  Life span ——————12 yrs

  Female mature —in 24 mos.

  Mating season —-12-month

  Gestation ———— 90 days

  Litter size —————- 3 to 5

  Cub mortality rete ——95%

  Vocalization ———-Limited

  Speed ———– max120 K/h

  Social ——————–Solitary 

  Territory ————- 777 sqKm

Wt. ————————-120 to 225 K*

  Life span —–8 to10 -12 to 17 yrs

  Female maturity  —-36 – 48 mos.

  Mating season —————estrus*

  Gestation ——————–110 days

  Litter size ————————1 to 4*

  Cub mortality —————60-70%*

  Vocalization  ———-4 stages body language & sent trails

  Speed  —————————–50 kph

  Social  ————-pride or coalition*  

Territory  ——————– 1000 sqKm*

The lions and cheetah are planes creatures that feed on migrating animals. Their prey population feeds on grass. Without predictable rain there is no grass. Without water, grass and prey the predators must range widely for hunting or die. The wider their range the more isolated they become.

Here is how the Cheetah compares to the Big Five cats.

Cat Native regionAve. WeightAve. Speed mphAve life span yrs
LionAfrica and India420 lbs (male)
280 lbs (female)		5015-16 (female)
8-10 (male)
LeopardAfrica, Asia, Russia, India68 lbs (male)
51-60 lbs (female)		3612-17
CheetahAfrica, (Iran ?)46-16050 – 8010~12
JaguarAmericas120-2105012-15
Puma (Cougar)Americas120-220 lbs (male)
64-140 lbs (female)		40-508-13
TigerIndia (Asia)200-680 lbs (male) 140-370 lbs (female)30-408-10
Table 2. Specification of large cats

CHEETAH BEHAVIOR

It is not difficult to see the vulnerability of the cheetah. From Table 2, you can see that they are the smallest, shortest lived, and least distributed animals of the group.They are not one of the big cats. Additionally, they are solitary animals with the lowest cub survivability. Cub mortality is high. Up to 90% of cubs do not survive to three months due to predators like lions and hyenas. Do they really belong in Africa?

A cheetah standing in tall grass, looking towards the camera with a backdrop of green foliage.
Sleek proportioned lone cheetah hunting for prey.

A cheetah sitting in tall grass, looking back towards the camera.
Lone Cheetah with successful hunt constantly checking for other predators like lions and hyena who may steal the catch. She has no group to help like lions who hunt with the pride. Her keen eyes and great speed would not be an advantage for hunting at night.

Cheetah females reach sexual maturity at 18 to 23 months and breed year-round.  Pregnancy lasts approximately 90 days. They birth 3 to 6 cubs in a hidden den.

A group of cheetahs lounging on dry, sandy ground, surrounded by sparse vegetation.
Very unusual cheetah mother with three nearly full grown cubs lying under a tree in midday sun. With cub mortality rate at 90%, she has been a very successful provider. Soon they will separate leading to solitary lives; meeting occasionally; socializing only for mating.

Their obvious advantage is their speed. This advantage is only useful when there is sufficient space to reach that speed. They are planes creatures that have semi-retractable claws and less flexible ankles. They rarely find use for trees. They are also very quiet animals compared to lions. They lack the specialized larynx required to roar thus limiting their long distance communication.

LION BEHAVIOR

Lions are truly one of the Big Five cats.Their size, distribution and longevity are characteristics that are collectively superior to any of the others. Additionally, they have a very structured social community. They behave as a group when hunting thus improving the survival of the individual. They are polygamous during their estrus period. Gestation is 108 to 110 days producing 1 to 4 cubs. Cub mortality is high (often up to 60-76%). A new lead male cat will kill cubs in the pride from defeated pride leaders. They are planes creatures that are heavy and lack flexibility finding no good use for trees.

Two male lions resting in a grassy area, with one lying on its side and the other resting in the background among bushes.
Adult male lions rest after consuming their fair share of the hunt provided by the female. These are probably siblings.

A group of lions resting among tall grasses and bushes in a natural habitat.
Young adult lions from various mothers in the pride sitting in the shade waiting until the dominant female to signal for them after a successful hunt. They continue this social behavior throughout life.

A lioness standing gracefully in tall golden grass, looking towards the viewer in a natural habitat.
Lead lioness scouting the hunting territory without help and without her litter to care for.

A lioness yawning while lying on the ground in a grassy area near water.
Vocalization; Roar
A lioness lying in tall grass, displaying a growling expression.
Growl, grunt and chuff

Completely ignoring the automobiles around them this lion couple use scent and body language behavior preliminary to mating .
A lion resting on a tree branch surrounded by bare branches and green foliage in the background.
WHAT ! This is not the typical lion dehavior. Maybe we should have called the ladder fire-truck to bring him back down.

Two lions resting on the ground in a grassy area, surrounded by fallen logs and sparse vegetation.
Sleeping is what they do best. Like most cats, they are twilight/nocturnal hunters. Note the social contact even while sleeping.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

After development of farming and increasing population growth, especially during the last two hundred years has dramatically exploded. Humans have established farms on arable land. Water has been diverted to the farms. Fencing and other defense measures have been erected. Native undomesticated animals from the naturally undeveloped land have been blocked from ingress into areas reserved by humans. Animals living in the wilderness are hunted to suppress their population, to be taken as trophies, killed by wars and industrialization and by obstruction of their migrating and hunting corridors. These have divided and isolated them into small unconnected groups.

SPECIES TRAPS

Isolation dilutes the population and requires the smaller groups to develop as “founders” of a new group. The isolated group becomes inbred risking a genetic drift death trap.

CONCLUSION

The behavior of these two cat species is extraordinarily different. Behavior and size differences are the key to their success despite the identical competitive demands. Both use the same territory and face the same weather, habitat and human exposure. Which do you believe is the most successful? Why?

See the next installment in this series to understand the other “traps”.

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# lion, #cheetah, #behavior, #Africa, #traps, #farming, #habitat #founder effect, #isolation, #genetic drift, #evolution

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Glacial Formation and Plate Tectonics Influence Species Survival in Africa – Part 1

Part I – Tectonics, Glaciers and Time

A few zebras and wildebeests grazing in the desert of the Ngorongoro Crater of Tanzania, with two safari vehicles in the background kicking up dust.
Fig. 3 Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania, 2025 desertification

Introduction

The terrestrial forces of tectonic plate movement, ice ages and volcanic activity, together have changed the earth like no other forces except collision with extraterrestrial bodies. Southeast Africa has strategically benefited from these earth changing forces. This can be seen in the generation of a widely varied collection of mega and micro fauna and flora like no other place.

A panoramic view of a vast green landscape with patches of water, hills in the background, and a clear blue sky.
Fig. 10 The Ngorongoro 5 years ago.

The introduction picture shows a 7 zebras and 5 wildebeest in the Ngorongoro Crater. We went there using safari vehicles in 8/2025. The only road was made of irregular stones, ruts and dirt. Driving was difficult. Visibility was obscured for hours by dust as we drove across the crater. It is the caldera of the worlds largest above water volcano that was active 2.5 million years ago. It was famous for its wildlife. The image shows the greatest concentration of animals which we encountered along the way. To say that it was disappointing is an understatement. Fig. 10 comes from a posting on the internet.

Changing forces

Today we can see that the forces are changing. Tectonic plate is the slowest acting force acting in the level of hundreds of millions of years. And yet its rate and direction of movement can change dramatically in regions. This may be caused because glaciers and ice shelves are reduced. Glacialization operates at more rapid rate than plate movement with an effective speed measured in thousands of years. As the ice melts the weight of the water is more evenly distributed to the oceans thus altering the plate movement location and location of volcanic activity. Notably, the rate of vulcanism is unchanged. Volcanic ash, carbon dioxide and sulphur and gases are insignificant when compared to human activity. Anthropogenic CO2 emission for 2010 is estimated to be about 80 to 270 times larger than the respective maximum and minimum annual global volcanic CO2 emission. The results of action and reaction of human intervention parallel a cause and effect interference with historic geologic cyclical behavior. This may be the root cause of two possible effects of biological changes which are currently occurring. Survival of existing species is in decline. Generation of new species has slowed. This series of postings uses a contrast of two cat species, lions and cheetahs in Southeast Africa. Study of these species is intended to form a foundation for understanding how the change in the forces drive the current ecological conditions.

These four blogs are the result of thoughts and interpretations based on our latest safari to Africa that included Kenya and Tanzania. This was not a high-end trip. Instead it was a road trip to some of the lesser visited sights and it was during a period that was unexpectedly dry. I was particularly interested in the survivability of two well recognized cat species. The lions and cheetahs are two very different genus of predatory cat species at the apex of the food chain.

VOCABULARY

The vocabulary in these post also include several technical terms that apply to our discussion. For definitions, follow their links. Genetic drift, founder effect, gradualism, saltation, adaptive introgression and hybridization.

A close-up of a cheetah licking its lips with a blurred grassy background.
Fig 1. A distinction of genus is the outstanding characteristic to be followed in this series. Cheetah are from the genus Acinonyx while Lions are of the genus Panthera. They are not genetically related.

Let’s look at the driving forces and their results. The following charts show the approximate location of the Great Rift Valley region in Southeast Africa. This is a massive geologic event which is actively happening as we watch. The continent is splitting the eastern quarter of the continent off the main body. This gigantic split has created a huge valley that will someday be filled with ocean. It is accompanied by volcanoes, earthquakes, lava flows and uplifting plateaus.

GLACIAL REBOUND

From the last two glacial periods, 21,000 and 13,000 years ago, the continents are still recovering. The ice pack at the poles still hold the last remnants of that ice age. One result of this diminishing ice can be seen in the African desertification. The Sahara and Kalahari deserts are the result of the last ice age. When the poles melt and the Rift Valley floods the main portion of the African continent will recover. The deserts will bloom and the chronic drought in Africa will be concluded. The new continent will be created east of the Rift Valley. Migration may reverse. It just takes time. Never-the-less, the adaptable survivors will prevail.

Vast desert landscape featuring a rocky outcrop with vegetation atop, surrounded by dry, arid terrain and distant hills.
Fig.2 Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, the Louis Leakey campsite, desert landscape

ECOLOGIC BARRIERS

As a result of the climatic changes, geographic barriers emerged. These are called Walls and they divide Africa into three eco regions.

These include the Saharan desert, the sub Sahil West-Africa separated from the Sahara by the line called the wall called the Sahil and East-Africa with Great Rift Valley, Fig.4, separated from wast Africa by the Great Wall of mountains.

The Great Walls of Africa limit the direction of animal migration and isolate the wildlife. This isolation has a double effect on all life forms by promoting speciation but also risking the compromises of genetic drift. In Fig. 5 the Sahil, shown as a green line, is the wall created by the Sahara. The Great Wall of mountains shown as blue line of Fig.5 parallels the Great Rift valley. Note that the regions of Kenya and Tanzania, Fig. 6 outlined in blue, are in high arid, desert risk locales.

MIGRATION

Through the two Great Walls there are narrow gaps called “bottle necks” . These geographic locations limit commingling and migration of species. These are the few areas through which animals can migrate. Except for the Nile river flowing through the Great Rift valley none of these areas follow the seasonal north-south wet weather patterns nor a river flow to another land mass. The access to Eurasia from the generative basis of Africa is through the three bottle necks of the Straights of Gibraltar, the Nile river delta and the Straight of Bab Al Mandeb. During the last 12,000 years the shallow Nile river delta crossing has been the least treacherous.

Mov. 1 Wildebeest migrating northward following the water and new grass. Lions, Cheetah and other predators follow the prey.

The illustration Fig. 7 is a conceptualization of the most direct routes for migration. Interestingly the Great Migration for animals from Africa also follows the projected route for hominoid migration. Mov.1.

Map of the Great Rift Valley and its geological features, including the Eastern Rift, Western Rift, and surrounding plates in East Africa.
Fig. 4 Location of the Great Rift Valley shown as the purple area in the red bracket. The insert shows the tectonic plats promoting the rift.
Map of Africa with highlighted Nile River, showing elevation variations in the southern region.
Fig. 5 The Great Wall of mountains and volcanoes west of the Rift are marked in the blue bracket. The Sahil marked in green, is the sub Saharan line south of the desert. The Great Wall and the Sahil are Africa’s migration barriers.
Map of Africa showing different risk levels for a specific factor, with regions colored in green, yellow, orange, red, and gray, indicating low to very high risk.
Fig. 6 Sub Sahil desertification is below the Sahara and is a high risk for drought. The light blue outline defines the Great Migration area. This area is at moderate drought risk.

The illustrated route could be followed in both directions as driven by climate change and the paths of migration of predated species sought after by the apex predators. As the glaciation advanced or retreated these routes would have water which would support grasses, insects, herbivores and carnivores. The Nile is the only north /south river. It flows to the Mediterranean through the Great Rift valley. Following the Valley waterway this leads to the choke points to the Eurasian continents. Following the east west routes of the Congo River, the Niger River or the Zambezi River leads to migration potential but dead ends at the two vast oceans.

Map of Africa showing various river basins highlighted in different colors, with a prominent pink line indicating a geographical feature.
Fig. 7 This is a conceptualized path for the bidirectional migration routes shown in red overlying a map of Africa.

We will follow two cat species which are the result of adaptations after the last Glaciation period. Panthera contains the largest number and variety of living members of the cat family. There are five living species: the jaguar, leopard, lion, snow leopard and tiger. It contains the five living species of “big cats” capable of roaring. Cheetahs belong to a completely different biological genus (Acinonyx).  They cannot roar, have distinctly different anatomy, including semi-retractable claws for high-speed traction and a unique, lightweight skeleton

A collage depicting six types of lions with labeled names: Transvaal Lion, Congo Lion, West African Lion, Nubian Lion, Southwest African Lion, and Asiatic Lion.
Fig. 8 Gross view of lion subspecies
An infographic displaying the four living cheetah subspecies: Southern African cheetah, Northeast African cheetah, Saharan cheetah, and Asiatic cheetah, along with their scientific names, distribution areas, and conservation statuses.
Fig. 9 Gross overview of cheetah subspecies

Continue to follow this amazing story of Earth changing forces. See the combination of struggle, adaptation and survival of life that sweeps across the planet through hundreds of thousands of years. Learn about the unique capabilities and risks to the Cheetah and the Lions. Because we are part of this great drama, you may use this knowledge to anticipate our future.

All photographs created by John Knapp

References:

Mitogenomic analysis of the genus Panthera

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#glacers, #tectonic, #migration, #Africa, #Nile, #walls, #barriers, #corridors, #cheetah, #lion, #genetic drift, #founder effect, #Ngorongoro, # Olduvai, #cats #wildebeest,

Fluorescent Photography Highlights Coral Health Issues

Introduction

This section presents a structured account of observations made in the reef system surrounding Roatan, Honduras. This is not unique to this location but the conditions are consistent with other findings in the reef systems of the Gulf. These findings and identifications are based on personal experience and the efforts of amateur naturalists. These observations extend a continuing investigation into coral reef health, previously initiated in the post titled “Death in Paradise.” See past posts. This is presented is made to support my application to the Water School at Florida Gulf Coast University to study for a Master’s in Environmental Sciences. The goal is to learn more about coral reefs, coal polyps, and polyp disease.

These observations are findings revealed by white light flash photography during the day and ultra blue illumination lighting with amber filtration to show fluorescence at night. It was not possible to superimpose photos of identical structures due to instability caused by rough sea conditions.  

IMAGES WITH FLUORESCENT LIGHT

Figure 1: Fluorescent Green Goniopora Coral

Photographed using an ultra-blue light source and an amber filter, this image depicts a fluorescent green Goniopora coral, also known as the flowerpot coral. Under white light, these corals appear dull brown, but under blue or UV light, their fluorescent pigments—produced by dinoflagellate algae within the polyp—create a vivid green glow. This species is a Large Polyp Stony (LPS) coral, notable for long, fleshy polyps resembling a bouquet of flowers. The coral may belong to either the Goniopora or Alveopora genus, which can be differentiated by tentacle count—Goniopora polyps have 24 tentacles, while Alveopora have 12. 

A vibrant underwater scene showcasing colorful coral formations illuminated by blue and green light.
Figure 1. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

Figure 2: Tubastraea faulkneri (Orange Cup Coral)

This image, also captured with ultra blue lighting and an amber filter, shows a coral likely to be Tubastraea faulkneri, the orange cup coral. Typically orange, this species may display green or yellow variations under specific lighting. Tubastraea faulkneri is a non-reef building LPS coral, often inhabiting cryptic environments such as caves, overhangs, and shipwrecks. Notably, it is a zooxanthellate carnivore, lacking symbiotic algae and feeding by extending its polyps at night to capture plankton. Its distribution spans the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea with origins in the Indo-Pacific.

Close-up view of a vibrant coral formation with green and blue hues, surrounded by underwater vegetation.
Figure 2. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

Figure 3. Montastraea cavernosa (Great Star Coral)

This photograph features a coral with a bright green base and purple-rimmed polyps or tips, possibly a Neon Green Cyphastrea, Montastraea cavernosa (Great Star Coral), Goniopora, or Fimbriaphyllia (Frogspawn/Hammer coral).

Close-up of vibrant green coral polyps with a dark background, showcasing intricate textures and shapes.
Figure 3: Neon Green Cyphastrea or Similar Species

Figure 4.

An image taken with blue light and an amber filter shows a central region of dead coral polyps highlighting loss within the colony.

Close-up view of a vibrant green coral with glowing features, showing intricate patterns and textures against a dark background.
Figure 4: Central Area of Dead Coral Polyps

Figure 5: Montipora Coral (“Shamrock Monti” or “Rainbow Montipora”)

This photo reveals a Montipora coral, recognized for vibrant green polyps on a purple or blue base under actinic lighting. As an SPS coral, it displays a bumpy, encrusting growth form and is valued by reef keepers for its resilience and fast growth. The coloration varies with lighting conditions, often intensifying under different spectrums.

Close-up of vibrant green and purple coral with intricate details, dated 2026 1.1.
Figure 5. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

Figures 6–8: Disease Progression in Montipora Coral

Figure 6 shows a Montipora coral under blue light. Figure 7, an enlargement, illustrates zones of normal tissue, dysfunction, and tissue loss, suggesting the possible progression of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD). Figure 8 highlights an encrusting Montipora structure glowing green under blue/UV light, with blue/purple areas indicating disease and tissue death.

Close-up view of vibrant green and purple coral formations under UV light, with a date overlay of '2026 1.19'.
Figure 6. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera
An underwater image showing coral with zones labeled 'Tissue Loss Zone', 'Transition Zone', and 'Normal', illustrating coral health variations.
Figure 7. This enlargement of the Figure 6 image shows the possible progress of SCTLD on the surface of the coral reef. Indicated are the various zones of normal, dysfunctional and tissue loss zone.
Close-up view of a vibrant, textured coral surface illuminated with green and purple hues, showcasing intricate patterns and details underwater.
Figure 8. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

Figure 9: Surviving Fluorescent Polyp Coral

This image depicts a fluorescent polyp coral barely surviving amidst lifeless surfaces devoid of reflective polyps.

A close-up image of colorful coral under ultraviolet light, showcasing vibrant hues of blue and purple against a dark background.
Figure 9. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera 

Figure 10: WWC Electric Daisy (Stylocoeniella armata)

This specimen is a small polyp stony (SPS) coral, forming a dense, textured mat and known to compete with other corals upon contact. (often called a “thorn coral”).

Close-up of a colorful coral with bright green and pink dotted patterns in an underwater setting.
Figure 10. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

Figure 11: Maze Brain or Worm Brain Coral

Likely a Platygyra or Favia species, these coral display neon green and purple fluorescence due to specialized proteins. It forms dome-shaped colonies with maze-like channels and can be semi-aggressive, extending sweeper tentacles at night. Nutrition is primarily derived from symbiotic algae.

Close-up of vibrant green coral with purple patterns under blue lighting, showcasing underwater marine life.
11. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera Figure 

Figure 12: Encrusting Montipora or Cyphastrea

This image shows an encrusting coral, possibly Montipora or Cyphastrea, with green and purple fluorescence. The coral spreads as a thick mat, but species identification requires microscopic skeleton examination.

Close-up of vibrant coral formations illuminated with blue and green hues under ultraviolet light.
Figure 12. Photo with ultra blue light source and amber filter on camera

images WITH White light with photoFlash

Figure 13: Mustard Hill Coral or Related Species

Using white light flash, this photo captures a yellow, bumpy stony coral, likely a mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides), star coral (Orbicella spp.), or brain coral. The coral features a massive, uneven surface covered in small polyps. An encrusting goup of organism is growing in the cavity of the stony skeleton devoid of polyps. These corals are native to shallow, warm Caribbean reefs and play a critical role in reef-building.

A close-up view of a textured yellow coral formation with green algae growth visible in its center, set against a blurred underwater backdrop.
Figure 13. Photo illuminated by white light flash.

Figure 14: Diseased Brain Coral

This image shows a brain coral suffering from disease with evident demineralization and erosion.

Close-up of a large coral formation on the ocean floor, surrounded by diverse marine life and coral reefs.
Figure 14. Photo illuminated by white light flash.

Figure 15: Boulder Brain Coral (Colpophyllia natans)

This photograph shows Colpophyllia natans, a common and large brain coral in the Caribbean. The coral displays wide, meandering ridges and valleys with contrasting colors. Fine, narrow lines (septa) running from ridges to valleys help distinguish this species. Boulder brain coral forms massive colonies and is a dominant reef-builder in shallow environments. It is currently considered vulnerable due to climate change, acidification, and disease. The central area in the image shows disease-related polyp loss.

A close-up of a brain coral showcasing its textured surface, with an area of orange and red coloration and some algae growth, set against a sandy ocean floor.
Figure 15. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 16: Symmetrical Brain Coral (Pseudodiploria strigosa)

This image likely features a Symmetrical Brain Coral, forming a dome-shaped colony with convoluted valleys and rounded ridges. The coral is yellowish-tan with darker areas, lacking the groove found in some related species. Pseudodiploria strigosa is widespread in Caribbean shallow waters, slow-growing, and foundational to reef habitats, supporting symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) for photosynthesis.

Note the irregular loss of polyp growth on the surface of central and right side of the specimen. This is consistent with the result of spreading SCTL disease. Additionally, the adjacent coral is completely overrun by the opportunistic algae.

Close-up of a coral formation covered in algae on a reef, with a date stamp in the corner.
Figure 16. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 17: Lettuce Coral (Agaricia spp.) and Codium Macroalgae

The image features a ruffled lettuce coral (Agaricia spp.) (Agaricia agaricites or Agaricia tenuifolia} and green branching macroalgae (Codium). The coral forms undulating plates or branches, often yellow-green or brown. 

Substantial polyp loss and algal overgrowth are evident. The accompanying Chlorophyta Codium macroalgae, known as green sea fingers, have a distinctive branching structure absorb nutrients like nitrates and phosphates from the water. 

Close-up of green coral and marine plants on a rocky substrate, showcasing intricate textures and vibrant colors.
Figure 17. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 18: Field of Broken Coral

White light photography reveals an expanse of broken, lifeless coral, a few healthy finger corals, and one small fish.

An underwater scene featuring colorful coral reefs and a fish partially hidden among the coral.
Figure 18. Photo illuminated by white light flash.

Figure 19: Pillar Coral Disease Progression

This image of one of the pillar coral species shows a pattern of disease spread from the bottom to the top where the top appears relatively healthy in this daylight exposed photograph. The lower two thirds are bare of polyps. This area has been overrun by algae. 

Underwater image of a brownish coral formation surrounded by green and colorful marine plants.
Figure 19. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 20:

This image of a collective variety of stony corals in various states of disease progress.  A patch of polyp covered coral is on the lower left. Exposed stone is seen in the central area. The remainder is covered by several opportunistic algae species. The images in the distance are overrun by SCTLD and covered with algae.

Underwater coral reef with various textures and green plants, captured in natural lighting.
Figure 20. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 21: Snakelocks Anemone (Anemonia sulcata/viridis)

The organism shown in Figure 21 is likely a Snakelocks anemone. This finding is new to me. It is an invasive species out of its eastern Atlantic / Mediterranean range. Its tentacles are long and flowing, colored green, grey, or light brown, and tipped with violet or pink. Symbiotic algae embedded in its tissues supply nutrients through photosynthesis. Predatory by nature, it uses stinging cells to immobilize prey, although its sting is mild for humans. There were no observable mutualistic anemone fish. This supports the suggestion that these are indeed invasive.

A vibrant underwater scene featuring a green sea anemone with long, flowing tentacles, surrounded by colorful coral and marine plants.
Figure 21. Photo illuminated by white light flash

Figure 22: Chocolate Brittle Star (Ophiuroidea cinereum)

The organism in this image is likely a brittle star, endemic to the Gulf of Mexico and known as the Chocolate Brittle Star.

A close-up view of an octopus on the ocean floor, surrounded by rocks and marine vegetation.
Figure 22. Photo illuminated by white light flash.

Figure 23 – 24: Finger Coral (Porites spp.)

This image displays a branching finger coral, common in the Caribbean, with short, blunt, finger-like lobes. Porites typically have thicker branches, while Porites furcata features thinner, rounded tips. Both can appear green, yellow, or greyish, with color and growth form influenced by habitat conditions.

Close-up view of colorful coral formations underwater, showcasing green and yellow hues and various textures.
Figure 23. Photo illuminated by white light flash

This enlarged view of Figure 23 depicts relatively healthy coral with no signs of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease (SCTLD).

Close-up view of colorful coral formations under the sea, featuring vibrant green and yellow hues.
Figure 24  This enlargement image of Figure 23 shows relatively healthy coral without signs of SCTLD

Conclusion:

All stony coral varietals seem to be subject to the same disease. The progress of the disease is unchecked and is advancing. The algae may be flourishing because of increased nutrients in the areas resulting from decomposing polyps and because they are optimizing an echo-niche left vacant by the polyps. The algae are not rebuilding the reefs. The fish population is also in great decline probably secondary to the degradation of the reefs.

Personal Commentary and Reef Health Summary

After thirteen dives across six reef sites in Roatan, Honduras, the overall impression was a declining reef system. Notably absent were turtles, large fish, sharks, lobsters, tunicates, and nudibranchs. The reef, once vibrant, now stretches for miles as broken, gray-brown expanses covered by algae. Invasive species observed included lionfish, a single anemone, Tubastraea faulkneri coral, and two spiny urchins. Only small fragments of some coral species persist, with no Elkhorn, Pillar, or Staghorn forms present and much of the previously widespread fluorescence now largely gone. While some sponges and fans remain, the images presented here document the few surviving patches of live coral polyps amid non-fluorescent, algae-covered stone skeletons.

Plan for remediation:

Problem Statement

The Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease is relentlessly advancing and destroying the vital surface of the stony reefs. The cause of this disease is not yet discovered. This is a continuing catastrophic event. Work is in progress and includes maping, determining the progress rate and direction of spread. The causality and cure are not yet determined.

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4 responses to “Fluorescent Photography Highlights Coral Health Issues”

  1. Cindy Avatar
    Cindy

    You examined so many varities of coral. It is very disheartening to learn how badly the disease is treating the reef. If you can determine the primary cause that will be wonderful, and a first step to treatment.
    Cindy

    1. John Knapp Avatar
      John Knapp

      There is so much unknown about diseases in the ocean. This one is devistating and the cause is unknown. Hopefully the project that I planned will make some difference.

  2. Manuela Klopper Avatar
    Manuela Klopper

    It is devastating seeing the reefs dying and nearly everything else with them. I stopped scuba diving some years ago and I am happy to have seen beautiful reefs in many parts of the world.

    1. John Knapp Avatar
      John Knapp

      Yes. Caribbean diving was my first salt water experience now I am reluctant to return. I am so anxious to see some reversal of marine life there.

The Future of Florida’s Wilderness: Rewilding and Restoration Part 1/6

Let’s get serious about the Florida environment. This first posting outlines the three major issues regarding the future of Florida, especially Southwest FL.

The title image is a view of Estero Park Preserve. I added the sign graphic.

  • Scenarios for the future
  • Risk/benefits of rewilding
  • Consequences of species intra- and interdependence

For centuries Florida has been famed for its vibrant and diverse wilderness. It is a living repository of species drawn from the Caribbean, the Gulf, and subtropical America. Yet the past two hundred years have seen this unique ecosystem ravaged. People introduced non-native species, relentlessly homesteaded, and transformed the landscape for agricultural and urban development. The result is a wilderness in crisis. It is fragmented, altered, and teeming with exotic species that out compete or hybridize with the native flora and fauna. This document series outlines a strategic plan for the future of Florida’s wilderness. It is an examination of possible scenarios. It presents the risk/benefit calculus of rewilding. It supports species interdependence. It has a step-by-step outline for ecosystem restoration.

Definition: Rewilding is comprehensive, often large-scale, conservation effort focused on restoring sustainable biodiversity and ecosystem health. (institute of Rewilding)

A landscape in Southwest Florida showing dense vegetation, including shrubs and dry grass, representing the ecological challenges faced in the region.
This is one example of tens of thousands of citrus groves abandoned and overrun by invasive species.

A landscape view of Florida's wilderness featuring tall grass and scattered trees, highlighting the need for ecological renewal.
Babcock ranch preserve undeveloped wet prairie
A lush, green forest scene in Southwest Florida featuring a variety of trees and underbrush, showcasing the region's rich biodiversity in its natural state.
Babcock ranch preserve undeveloped upland wood

Major Scenarios for the Future of Florida’s Wilderness

Florida stands at a crossroad, with three major possible scenarios for the trajectory of its wilderness:

  • 1. Continuance as a Species Repository: For millennia, Florida has served primarily as a bank of species. Rather than an origin point for evolutionary novelties it has been a major exporter of species elsewhere. Rewilding under this scenario would focus on maintaining and nurturing native species. It preserves the region’s role as a living archive of biodiversity.
  • 2. Generator of New Species: The widespread introduction of similar but non-native species—both intentionally has created a dynamic environment. Hybridization and adaptation of ornamental and agricultural plantings will unintentionally transform Florida into a generator of new species. Unpredictable and unintentional ecological outcomes will result.
  • 3. Degraded Ecosystem: If rewilding efforts fail or are mismanaged, Florida will become an ecological cautionary tale. With native species in decline invasive species will become rampant. Ecosystem services like water purification, habitat provision, and storm protection will severely decline.

Risk / Benefit Considerations in Rewilding

The imperative to restore Florida’s wilderness must be balanced by a careful analysis of risks and benefits. Rewilding, while promising, is not without peril.

  • Genetic Integrity: Simply replacing lost native species with physically similar, but non-identical genotypes can backfire. A non-native genotype may outcompete local species or fail to provide for dependent mutualists, causing cascading ecological harms. Cloning or propagating exact native genotypes minimizes this risk while preserving ecological relationships honed over millennia.
  • Ecological Compatibility: The introduction of new or “replacement” species may disrupt established mutualisms. They may also create new competitive dynamics while further destabilizing the ecosystem.
  • Proof of Concept: Any rewilding project must proceed through careful. It demands experimentation, trial phases, and rigorous review of existing literature. These will all be needed to maximize chances of success and minimize unintended consequences.

Intra- and Inter-Dependence of Species

Ecosystems are intricate webs with species depending on one another for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal, and countless other functions.

  • Physical and Genetic Identification: Restoration begins with precise identification of native species, both morphologically and genetically. This enables accurate matching of replacement stock and helps avoid mismatches that could undermine restoration.
  • Codependent Species: Many native species are mutually dependent. For example the relationship between native bees.; wildflowers or wading birds and wetlands. Successful rewilding requires restoration of these relationships, not just individual species.
  • Environmental Conditions: Beyond the species themselves, restoration must account for the specific environmental factors. Soil chemistry, water availability, fire regimes, and more allow these relationships to thrive.

These are the topics of the postings to follow

  • Review of State Key Initiatives
  • Structured outline for rewilding
  • Maximizing existing objectives
  • Marketing the concept for large scale rewilding of Florida
  • Call to action

SUMMARY

This is not just about legacy. This is your own quality of life; your own property value; your own cost of living. What are you thinking about when you don’t support initiatives, don’t press your representatives and spread invasive species? There are only three choices. 1. Fix it; 2. live with it as is; 3. abandon it and live with the consequences.

Let’s know your thoughts. Leave a reply jn the comment box below or start a thread in our discussion board.

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#rewilding #restoration #environment #risk/benefit #

Exploring More of Africa: A Photographer’s Dream Adventure

Everglades Ark is traveling again. This year the itinerary includes two weeks in Africa in the middle of our trip to Europe. Africa is a remarkable generator of spectacular species and a reservoir of diverse wildlife. This will be our second visit to the area below the horn of Africa. Kenya and Tanzania both offer excellent wildlife viewing. Three years ago we were in central Kenya to see its high concentration of wildlife, particularly in the Masai Mara. This time we will spend another 7 days in Kenya followed by 7 days in Tanzania. These regions are known for their vastness and remote wilderness areas.

The title picture was created from a photo made during the last trip to the Masai Mara. It is part of a community presentation made here in Bonita Springs FL.


In this area I expect to see a somewhat different variety of bird species and different behaviors. I am really looking forward to this safari and hope to bring back great stories and images. Our 2022 postings from the previous trip to Africa were extremely well received. The new posts of this experience should be ready in the fall. I will do my best to assure that they too are appreciated.

We will travel with National Geographic, G Adventures. Our group of 6 in the vehicle should make a reasonably comfortable seating arrangement. Our winter weather will be relatively cool and mild. Some of the location highlights will include the Great Migration, Ngorongoro crater and the Great Rift Valley.

The safari photo gear will be much the same except for the new Canon R5 body. This camera body will allow for more videography, better image stability, faster image recording and higher resolution. The array of memory cards will fill the demands of the two cameras. I will not use a blue tooth hard drive for image back-up. Every evening I plan to upload the images from the cards of the day directly to the iCloud . To facilitate this I will use the FTP on my iPad. For those interested in photography, here is a NatGeo link to aid in basic photographic experience when you photo/travel.

Map of Africa highlighting Kenya and Tanzania, illustrating the geographical locations important for wildlife viewing and safari itineraries.
The highlighted area in the Africa map shows the approximate travel area.

The itinerary includes:

  • Nairobi, Nakuru lake and park
  • Naiviasha Lake
  • Masai Mara plane
  • Olduvai Gorge and anthropology museum
  • Serengeti National Park
  • Ngorongoro national park

For those interested in wildlife photography and stories of Africa follow us for the posts in September!

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Bauhinia and Hibiscus: A Comparison of Floral Reproduction

This posting is a response to the numerous hits made on a previous posting featuring the Non invasive Bauhinia tree. It seems that the interest lies in its reproductive nature. The purpose of this post is to improve the understanding of plant biology through comparative anatomy.

The title image shows the Bauhinia (blakeana ) on the left and the Florida native scarlet rosemallow (Hibiscus coccineus) on the right. I photographed the Bauhinia in the roadway median of our neighborhood. I photographed and display the scarlet rosemallow because it is such a stunning finding in the fresh water marshes of the Corkscrew Nature Preserve in SW Florida. It also shows that it is not a cultivar but it can self propagate without human intervention. Both plants are eye candy that must be appreciated in their out-of-door surroundings. In our community we have domesticated tropical hibiscus which are close relatives to the wild scarlet hibiscus

These two blossoming plants attract loads of attention. The Hong Kong orchid (Bauhinia blakeana ) and the cultivated tropical Hibiscus (Malvaceae) produce wonderful, flamboyant, visually attractive flowers. They are planted throughout our community. Additionally, these blooms have great staying power lasting for many months. Their flowering period stretches anywhere from eight to ten months, from September to June. They have, however, remarkably different reproductive powers. To reveal the secret of these two plants this posting compares the gross and micro anatomy of their two flowers.

A detailed diagram of a Bauhinia flower labeled with its anatomical parts, including bud, petal, sepal, stamen, pistil, ovary, style, and stigma, showcasing the flower's structure.
Bauhinia blossom with some pettals removed
Diagram labeling parts of a hibiscus flower including the stamen, ovary, style, stigma, petal, and sepal, accompanied by lush green leaves and a bud.
Hibiscus blossom with no petals removed

Gross and micro dissection reveals the major difference in the reproductive capacity of the these two perfect flowers. Dissection and microscopic examination of the ovaries shows that the hibiscus has ovaries while the bauhinia has no trace of ovules. It is unable to sexually reproduce.

Diagram illustrating the anatomy of a Bauhinia flower, highlighting its various parts including petal, sepal, stamen, anther, filament, ovary, style, stigma, and pistil. The text indicates that the flower is perfect but sterile, with no ovules or seeds.
This is a full dissection of the Bauhinia × blakeana blossom. Look at the top left images. You can see that under microscopic examination there are no ovaries within the ovary. This plant is infertile.

Anatomy diagram of a hibiscus flower, illustrating the components like the ovary, stigma, stamen, and petals, labeled with descriptions to explain its reproductive functions.
This is a full dissection of the Hibiscus blossom. Look at the top left images. You can see that under microscopic examination there are ovules within the ovary. This plant can produce seeds. It is fertile.

The five-petaled blossoms of Bauhinia plants are known as “perfect flowers,” because each individual bloom contains both female and male parts. Some varieties of the Bauhinia flower, such as the widely cultivated Hong Kong Orchid Tree (Bauhinia × blakeana), are known to be sterile. Bauhinia are monoecious, which means “single house”. This designation describes the dual sexual capacity in a single flower. The flowers can self pollinate or fertilize with pollen from another plant. The flowers attract pollinators such as hummingbirds, bees, butterflies, and more. Bauhinia × blakeana‘s sterility is due to its hybridization. Bauhinia blakeana is the result of conjugation of the very similar species Bauhinia purpurea ( Purple Camel’s Foot) and Bauhinia variegata ( Camel’s Foot Tree). Both of these are exotic species according to the Hong Kong Herbarium. The parent plants have partially overlapping flowering periods and geographical habitats, and the same range of bee and butterfly species as pollinators. Interbreeding Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata is probable. The resulting triploidy of this plant has probably rendered this varietal sterile. The plants you see today are clones of the same flowers seen by Hongkongers more than a century ago. They are propagated asexually through cultivation of stem cuttings.

The Hibiscus is also considered a perfect flower which actually produces viable seeds. The hibiscus is a genus of flowering plants known for their large, showy flowers, belonging to the mallow family (Malvaceae). Fertilization of these plants is complex. Pollination may fail because of these five prerogatives.

  • Self-Pollination: Some hibiscus varieties are self-pollinating. This can make it difficult to cross-pollinate them.
  • Timing: Hibiscus flowers are only receptive to pollen for a short period, usually just a few hours.
  • Pollen Viability: Hibiscus pollen can lose its viability quickly.
  • Stigma Receptivity: The stigma needs to be receptive to pollen. The stigma, gateway to the ovarian, might not be receptive at the same time the pollen is viable.
  • Germination: Seeds take 12 to 24 months to bloom.

The hundreds of species of hibiscus are generated through human intervention of the pollination. Tropical hibiscus are propagated sexually from seeds or asexually from stem cuttings or plant division. In carefully controlled environments and with delicate, patient effort botinists have hybridized the tropical hibiscus to make hundreds of beautiful new varieties. The new plant varieties are propagated from cuttings or division to produced plants which are clones of their parents.

Illustration explaining hormonal fertility signals in plants during pollination, detailing four key hormones involved in the process.
In addition to timing, these four hormonal obstacles must be passed in the carpel for signaling a specific selection of pollen appropriate for germination of ovules in these species.

DISCUSSION of FINDINGS:

This is not a thorough scientific data collection. Three samples of blossoms from each of two trees were collected for a total sample size of six. All of the samples were made on the same day in April, 2020. There were no major local meteorological events for the year preceding this observation. There were no observations of the viability of the observed polled during this observation. Further study should be done to give this a high level of confidence of the conclusions.

SUMMARY:

In Florida the Bauhinia × blakeana and Hibiscus plants thrive and are found in almost all of the cultivated communities and household gardens. They are well tolerated but stable non-native species. Because of their reproductive limitations they are not invasive. We can feast our eyes on this banquet of form and color without fear of damaging the environment.

REFERENCE LINKS:

FEEDBACK:

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#Bauhinia #Hibiscus #reproduction #flowers #invasives #anatomy #seeds #sterile #

Exploring the Elements of the Classical Japanese Garden. Part 4

The purpose of the classical Japanese garden is to provide a place for meditation and veneration. A Shinto shrine is the historically oldest and perhaps archetypical garden. Its form may date back to 500 BCE. It is noted for its rusticity and blending into the local surroundings. It is a place for contemplation and veneration of the native elements and important concepts and significant ancestral figures. These spiritual elements called “Kami” were recognized as important and worthy of respect or veneration. These were not deities for worship but instead were intellectual constructs supporting the Japanese “rules of civility”

This is part 4/5 in a series of postings on my experiences and observations of gardens of Japan. For a complete understanding please visit the other postings. (1) (2) (3)

There are typically 6 elements in the classical Japanese garden. These include a Torii Gate, a bridge, one or more lanterns, rocks, a pond, and trees.

Myojin Torii gate with upward curve

The Torii is a gateway which is placed at the entrance of the shrine. It signifies the transition between the ordinary and the spiritual worlds. Often it is painted carmine red and made of wood.  I frequently saw two shapes.  Myojin torii are curved upwards at their ends and have a crossbeam that extends past the posts. Shinmei torii have a straight top and a crossbeam that ends at each post. There may be associated symbolic decorative rope or string accents called Shimenawa which along with trees further signify the boundaries of the shrine space.

If you come to a choice, make it.

The bridge symbolizes transition from one state of existence or world to another; from mundane to spiritual, from our sensual mortal reality to perfect immortal paradise. They maybe made of stone or wood and maybe either elaborate constructions or simply a single flat stone. Stepping on a bridge gives us a choice – either we cross it and take time on the bridge, or we turn back. In some gardens, bridges led to a central island called nakajima, which symbolized the Pure Land of Amida Buddha.

Stone lantern with place for a candle.

Stone lanterns originate in Buddhist traditions where the light suggests the enlightenment of Buddha’s teachings through the darkness of ignorance. From a Shinto perspective stone lanterns or yorishiro are made to attract, guide and house kami in the created sacred space. Each item in the construct has special significance. They are regarded as peaceful and tranquil.

Garden rocks selected and arranged for contemplation while sitting.

Rocks are ever so carefully selected, placed and arranged into the shinto garden. They are the residences of the kami. They symbolize the mountains or islands or even powerful figures in the Japanese pantheon. They are especially important in the Zen Buddhist garden. In the Zen garden, rocks stand for Mt Horai, the “Blessed Isles of the Immortals”. 

Expansive water feature with bridge in background
Sand representing water in Zen garden

Water in the shinto garden represents purity or purification. Without water in the garden the significance of bridges, rocks and islands would be lost. Ponds and especially flowing water are a key element to all but the Zen gardens. Instead of water in the Zen garden, gravel and stones are carefully placed and raked into patterns resembling rippling water.

Large ancient trees in palace garden
Group of carefully trimmed trees in private garden. Note the variations in color and texture.

Trees are included within and around the periphery of the garden. They are called shinboku, and may be draped with shimenawa rope. The shinto shrine trees are specifically designated as sacred because of their age, size, or connection to a particular kami. Large, old, single or groups of trees are attributed with concepts like immortality or endurance, beauty or mythology. They are the connection between the natural world and the divine.

Perhaps the ideal of the shinto garden, this place is in the wilderness at the base of Mt. Fujii. The Torii arches over the simple stone path. The bridge provides a decisional option to access another route. The native trees surround not only this pleasant lowland but also the entire Mt. Fuji national park. The stones are truely mountainous.

SUMMARY:

The five classical garden types include shinto shrines, buddhist gardens, zen-buddhist gardens, imperial palace grounds, and castle grounds. Images of these can be seen on our previous blog.

Shinto shrines are intended for veneration of kami.

Buddhist monastery: I think of these enclaves as gardens for the mind. They are surrounded garden areas that are mostly devoid of effigies or suggestions of kami. They are intended to provide tranquil respite for peace and tranquility. Buddhism derives from India and became very powerful in Japan. During the Shogunate civil wars the Buddhists fought for independence from the warring parties. During the Edo period Buddhism was considered a threat to the Empire. Its foreign origin and power conflicted with the concept of three principals of Japan; duty to the Emperor, to the Nation of Japan and to the Japanese ancestors. The State no longer supported the monasteries. Attendance dwindled and contributions were insufficient to maintain these mammoth wooden buildings.

Zen/Buddhist gardens: Zen Buddhism arose during the civil wars. The Shoguns combined various portions of the Shinto faith and positions of Buddhism to facilitate their own code of ethics. The esthetic simplicity of the Buddha combined with a strict discipline of the Samurai. This is referred to as the “Shogun way”. Samurai and Daimu modeled their private retreats in the form of shinto shrines.

Imperial palace grounds. The centers of government changed during the more than one thousand years of imperial rule. Several cities were host to the Emperor and these cities hold the remains of the various palaces.

Castle grounds: The castle itself is a military fortification. It was not a residence, instead it was a place for defense. It would be packed with munitions and armaments. These materials were used for offense or as a depot for invasion forces. Surrounding the castle the army would be encamped and the outer rings were the support and suppliers for the troops. The grounds may have extended many square kilometers around the castle. The gardens encircling the castle were for walking, meeting and socializing.

CONCLUSION:

It appears to me that both shinto and buddhism seek enlightenment. They have opposite approaches to achieve this goal. Buddhism puts faith in self inspection, shinto puts faith in kami. Both approaches have value.

REFERENCES:

Japanese Gardens Revealed and Explained, Chard R., Zenibo Marketing, 2013

Japanese Stone Gardens, Mansfield S., Tuttle Publishing, 2009

REFERENCE LINKS:

Stone lanterns , Water in Japanese gardens , Bridges in Japanese gardens

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#Japanese garden #kami #shinto #buddhist #lanterns #bridges #trees #samurai #shogun #zen

Cover Photo Published !

Marie Gorman, editor-in-chief and publisher of the Bay Watch News, accepted a submission for publication as a feature article written about Stunning Japanese Gardens for volume 7 number 5 April 2025. I previously posted much about this on this site and gave a Power Point Presentation to the Bonita Bay Community Association.

Much to my surprise she accepted two additional photos from my submission for the cover contest finalists. An even greater surprise for me was to see one of them on the cover of this recent issue. The feature image of this blog is a copy of that printed cover page.

Tommye Flemming, a senior contributing editor for the Bay Watch News also asked to interview me for a bio feature of residents in the community. We had a fun conversational experiencing. She was terribly flattering in her biographic sketch and also submitted additional photos from our travel experiences. This too was published in the same issue !

After the Bay Watch News was published, Marie said that she had an overwhelming positive response. I’m so pleased that these images and stories have brought a little happiness to so many people. See the full issue and enjoy the other submissions at this URL. Bay Watch News

Thanks Marie ! You made my day too.

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Feel free to use the coments block or go to the discussion board on this site.

#publication #Bay Watch News #biography # photography

Highlights from Our Spring Lecture Series

The spring series of three lectures was completed with good attendance. Thanks to all who attended and provided excellent feedback for future improvements. Discussions varied from thoughts of amazement in diversity of the ecosystems and colorful beauty of the plants and insects. For those who attended and those who expressed regrets, thanks for your consideration. For those unable to attend, see you next time! We had 23 attendees with sufficient room for 30. Watch for notification for next season in the Bonita Bay Community seasonal program bulletin.

On our blog site we will continue with our discussion of Japanese gardens compared to a Florida garden made in the Japanese traditional shinto style.

Watch for the feature article on Japanese Gardens in the Bay Watch News.

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This Spring, Explore SW Florida’s Unique Environment

You are invited to attend a series of three presentations this Spring, 2025. It is available only to residents of the Bonita Bay Community Association and their guests.The purpose of these presentations is to give information and encourage you to go.

This is a chance to explore the unique diversity of the SW Florida environment. Topics include our distinct surroundings, plants of special beauty, and our environment compared with other similar but globally distant areas. This presentation is also an opportunity to discuss these varied topics with John Knapp, author of Everglades Ark.

Topics and dates

Location

Community Activities Center: 3451 Bonita Bay Blvd., Suite #100.. Water and coffee included in attendance. No registration needed. Also see the schedule in the Bonita Bay publication Around the Bay

At the door there will be a $5.00 BBCA registration fee and, to help fund the Everglades Ark education effort, a $10.00 donation.

Questions ? Please call the Bonita Bay Community Association, Community activities, 239-390-5550.

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#lecture #Florida #ecosystems #flowers #comparison

Japanese Garden Types – Part 3 – Woodlands

The native woodlands are foundational for all other Japanese gardens. They have been revered for thousands of years as part of Shinto. They are geologically, ecologically, historically, culturally and economically important. The previous posts in this series have reviewed the cultural insights and history of the Japanese gardens. This is part three of a six part series on Japanese gardens. The purpose of this presentation is to focus on the value and management of the forests. Can these be applied to care of woodlands in Florida and the East Coast of the USA?

There are three garden types in Japan that include woodlands, food production gardens, and the classic traditional gardens. Here is a brief overview of the forests in the wilderness of Japan.

The feature image is typical of the countryside viewed from the cable car on the way to Mt. Fuji. It is mountainous and covered with a forest of predominantly gymnosperm trees.

The history of Japan has significantly altered the natural woodlands of Honshu. The wilderness is not as natural as expected. 75% of Japan is densely forested. Forty percent’ was planted by people. There is a deep and protracted use of the woodlands for lumbering. The giant shrines with statues of the Buddha are made of cedar and cypress harvested from the wilderness. Historically all of the major buildings and residences were built from local wood. Until the twentieth century no other materials were used.

No understory at altitude at 1/2 (4500 ft) of Mt Fuji
Shinto shrine in base of Mt Fuji park
Cyprus and Cedar tree forest

Deforestation Events

The forests were depleted of wood from three major events. There were two major event periods of construction which consumed whole mountains of wood. The first was during the castle shogun period the 1700’s. These included many square miles of defensive castles and associated residences for soldiers, civilians and commerce. Simultaneously, the residences and temples of the Buddhists were constructed. The second period was during the Edo and the Mejie eras. Edo construction focused on the new capital now called Tokyo. The third and period was the combination of the 1850’s through 1950. The forests were severely depleted as never before. This third period included deforestation for construction and devastation as a result of war.

Deforestation has an impact on the geology and ecology. Without the tree roots to hold the soil, earthquakes, floods, land slides with mud and rocks ensued. To restrain the soil trees were aggressively replanted with cedar and cypress with very little diversity. In 1954 The public was incentivized to plant even more. That incentive indirectly increased further deforestation of diverse native tree angiosperm hardwood species like the maple.

This had a further modern impact of construction lumber. Its value depends on good management of the trees. To grow straight, tall and knot free, the limbs need to be trimmed. To allow sufficient light and access to the trees the forest needs thinning. To be accessible to harvest, the slopes of the hills must be within the capacity of the power equipment. This is demanding work requiring a skilled and able labor force. The population of Japan is aging. The wage rate compared to other countries is relatively high There are insufficient foresters to develop an industrial timber crop. As a result of this, the trees are of questionable value. The monocultural nature of the crop also makes the forest susceptible to pests and diseases. The understory is sparse and not diverse. The wildlife is severely limited. To compete with imported lumber the method of management needs to be rethought.

1945. Tokyo reduced to ash
2024. Tokyo completely rebuilt in concrete

Spiritual Value of Old Trees as Seen in Art

Shinto regard of trees and forests is foundational. Recall that there has been a long veneration of trees which we described in the last posting. This value dates back thousands of years. They are assigned individual and group value as Kami spirits.

In Japan, old trees are venerated for their resilience, strength and power. Allegorically, they offer a bridge to the past. Both of these concepts are essential to the concept of Shinto. Blossoming trees are also highly regarded. Most notably are the spring blooms of the weeping cherry and plum trees. Autumnal trees with seasonal chromatic change in the leaves offer even more inspiration for artists.

Kano Masanobu, ~1550, This exquisite screen, ink on foiled paper is in the Tokyo National Museum
Suzuki Shōnen  1849-1918

Buildings for the Community Revering Forested Trees

The size of the remaining wooden buildings speak volumes about the mass of lumber needed for the temples, castles and residences of ancient Japan. The Great Buddha Hall of Tōdai-ji in Nara Japan is the world’s largest wooden building. It houses the largest cast bronze seated Buddha statue. It is only one of the few remaining giant Buddha halls. These images of notable wood structures do not truly capture their great size. Maintenance of these halls, palaces and castles is constant, expensive, and requires expert craftsmen and are paid for by donations. The remaining buildings are a small fraction of all of the original buildings that once existed.

Great Buddha Hall of Tōdai-ji in Nara. This reconstruction is only two thirds of the original building.
Senso-JI temple, Tokyo
Jansen-Ji temple, Kyoto, Japan
Senso-JI temple Pagoda, Tokyo
Matsumoto castle, Japan
Todai-ji Namdaimon, Nara, Japan
Nijo Castle, Kyoto, Japan

Private Wooden Buildings

The Gion district in Kyoto and the Yasaka-no To Pagoda has a high concentration of traditional wooden machiya merchant houses. This area was established 1300 years ago. Many of these wooden buildings date back to the Meiji period more than 150 years ago. Most of the original buildings were destroyed in the fire of 1865. In Kyoto those which were rebuilt were not destroyed in WW II. There were wooden structures like these in Tokyo. They were the norm and as you would expect, during WW II most of them burned. Only a few pockets of these remain. They were replaced with modern buildings made of steel reinforced concrete and glass.

Tokyo. Wood is protected from deterioration caused by dog urination. The curved barriers can be seen on the face of the structure
Kyoto. No barriers results in discoloration and acidic damage to the structure.

WW II post war reconstruction period and current state of woodlands

Trees by the numbers

Look at this hillside. At the lower level, below the green line, you can see the density of the tree trunks. There is no place for understory growth. This suggests over planting without selective tree pruning or thinning as is necessary for a healthy tree growth pattern.

The foliage distribution strongly overlaps the mountainous areas which we described in the first of this series on Japan. To better appreciate the distribution of trees in Japan, the following illustrations will show the varieties and locations in the island group. This underscores the limited accessibility to manage the growth or to commercially harvest the wood.

The distribution of trees is approximately 40% deciduous and 60% coniferous and evergreen.
This graphic is from “Forest and Forestry of Japan Textbook to Learn about Forests” . The Japan Forestry Association, “Forest zone of Japan”. Note our visited area is characterized as warmer temperature vegetation.

For more information on plants seen on this trip, please visit the Everglades Ark Epicollect database. to see more native trees and plants in seen on this visit. See observations numbers 422 to 434.

Reforestation:

There is a strong response to the tree management in today’s Japan. The forests of Japan rank third in the world for percentage of forest covered land. Modern management techniques including diversification of species are being applied and the use of local lumber is increasing.

Japan is now making a concerted effort to reforest and rewild their woodlands. Although this is a public works project and is government sponsored/funded it depends on community part time and volunteer workforce. It includes incremental reforestation using a variant of the Montreal process. This successful process has been widely applied in many locations around the world. The dedication and discipline of the people of Japan have made this do-it-yourself (DIY) project an example that could be followed here in Florida.

CONCLUSION

Forests continue to play an important part in Japan both spiritually and economically. Hopefully we can learn that over deforestation and questionable management can result in unintended consequences. The reversal of the untoward results can be costly, labor intensive and time consuming.

Next

In our next posting we will explore the productive gardens as farms in Japan. Later we will see the classic formal gardens

HERE ARE SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR the discussion board

Where does the art of bonsai fit into Japanese culture?

How would you manage the woodlands of Japan?

What can we learn from the Japanese woodland management experiences?

How can we use the Florida Master Naturalist program to encourage woodlands management in our own neighborhoods?

If you have visited or live in Japan please add to this description.

Is Japan competitive with the world in lumber production?

Reference texts:

•Japan, DK Eyewitness, Penguin House, Dorling Kindersley, 2000

•The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Benedict R., Houghton Mifflin, 1946, 1957, 1967. 2005

•Judgement at Tokyo, Bass G.J., Alfred Knoff, 2023

•Zen Gardens, Masuno S., Tuttle Publishing, 2012

•Japanese Gardens Revealed and Explained, Chard R., Zenibo Marketing, 2013

•Japanese Stone Gardens, Mansfield S., Tuttle Publishing, 2009

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#gardens #Japan #Shinto #samurai #Buddhism #Shogun # culture #imperialism #history #philosophy #art #trees #

The Evolution of Japanese Gardens: Exploring Dramatic Cultural Influences – Part 2

The cultural changes of Japan are fascinating and profound. Journey with me and see how they have significantly influenced gardening on Honshu and all art in Japan. This posting is a generalized recapitulation of the history. It will help you follow the cultural forces as they change through time. Powerful characters in that history built these gardens and structures. We will look for the demonstration of these influences by interpreting the evolving style and content of their gardens.

The featured image is a shinto shrine. Be sure to see the earlier posting, Cultural Insights from Japan’s Stunning Garden Landscapes.

Types of gardens:

We will look at three types of gardens which were made and modified over the last thousand years. I have selected Japanese history to follow the gardens. All of the gardens were made with special intention. In Japan there are three identifiable types of gardens; wilderness, production and formal (classical). These will be individually discussed in the posts to follow.

Early Development:

Fig 1. Early development. Expansion of native culture.

Shinto:

Shinto shrine with Tori gate, walking path, natural surrounding, and effigies representing important elements

Shinto is an ancient veneration based faith. It is native to Japan. It may have originated ~300 BCE. It is not a true religion. It attributes veneration to spiritual Kami; avatars of people, objects and forces in natural settings. The Shinto shrine is simple and rustic. It has specific elements and design style emphasizing nature. This is the earliest referenced form of Japanese gardens. The natural elements and symbolic representations in design are in nearly all subsequent classical Japanese gardens.

Buddhism:

Buddhism is a philosophic, faith based life style. It originated in India and came to Japan ~400 AD. It emphasizes simplicity, restrained behavior, self awakening, and reincarnation using meditation. There are many forms of Buddhism. Zen Buddhism is a Samurai adaptation of one of the extant Buddhist sects. It is more severe in imaging and its gardens are characterized by the use of stones, gravel and sand. The arrangement is designed for stationary meditation not for walking. This form of faith acknowledges the concept of limitations. The gardens encourage transcendence of the limitations of the objects.

Entrance gate to Buddhist monastery / garden

IMPERIALISM:

Walking path in a large and complex Kyoto Imperial garden. It includes Shinto elements of water, bridge, trees and shrubs, lanterns and other Kami references.

The emperors of Japan have a long and troubled history. They date back to 1000 BC well before written history. Imperial power has risen and fallen at lease three times in recorded history. In the last period, Imperial power did not return until after the second visit of Commodore Matthew Perry. He was sent by the US president to force the trade. Japanese nationalists precipitated the overthrow of the Shogun and reestablish the power position of the Emperor.

Samurai: CODE

Samurai warriors had a moral code of ethics and behavior. Their training started in childhood. It focused not only in strength but also intelligence. When they were not fighting or training their combat skills they practiced self reflection, studied philosophy, literature, and the arts. They showed discipline, frugality, kindness, honesty,  personal duty & honor, athletics, military skills, military strategies and political savvy. Ultimately they were trained to be fearless in battle. They were rewarded with currency, land and promotion.

The samurai developed a complex hierarchal order. The shogun was the highest rank of military commander. The feudal land lords were called daimyo. The shogun and his samurai provided military protection to the emperor and the daimyo. Through aggressive civil warfare attrition, one Shogun eventually dominated. This resulted in the end of civil strife, a unified Japan and peace which lasted for 200 years. In total, samurai directed an inalienable influence for 600 years.

The White Castle built buy the samurai Shogun

Politics and civil war:

Two Samurai armies fighting for opposing Shogun who seek domination of territory and power. (Source Anonymous)

The four current and historic Japanese capital cities are on Honshu. Each has a palace with gardens built for an emperor. These palatial gardens were made for the royal entourage for pleasurable encounters. They were used for meetings, entertainment, and celebrations for those with imperial access. In private, the emperor entertained his friends and families, concubines and eunuchs and his other supporters. They were used for and socialization, fun, intrigues, scheming, and planning. They had outer buildings and walkways. There were surrounding walls and moats with defensive designs. A class of defensive warriors was encouraged to defend the high culture class. These men called samurai were dedicated and highly trained. They were better than the ancient Greek Spartans .

Mid development:

Fig. 2. Mid development. Philosophic and power structure development.

The Shoguns were highly successful leaders of the Samurai warrior class. Regional Shoguns built castles with associated buildings as well as gardens. These were strategically placed for conflict management and defense. Daimyo and Samurai also built traditional gardens because they had land and power to pay and support them. These private gardens were used as retreats for meditation and rest.

Late Development:

Fig 3. Late development. Japan followed a path from feudalism to world conflict and destruction.

During this period political pressure reduced support for some and increased support for other gardens. During the 1600-1850 (Eco) period Buddhism was controlled by the shogun. During the 1886 -1912 (Meiji) period the government forced a separation of Shinto from Buddhism. Buddhism was persecuted because it was considered a foreign influence. State money was no longer directed to the massive and expansive Buddhist monasteries and gardens. They deteriorated in structure and appearance. Shinto increased in importance and along with Confucian thoughts were strongly supported by the State. This accomplished four valued behaviors. It reduced the power of a passive Buddhist ideology. It reinforced commitment to Japanese nationalism. It forced discipline, militarism and ethnic superiority. This also supported naturalistic idealism and devotion to the Emperor, the State and ancestral heritage. The samurai were outlawed. The military continued the defensive and offensive duties and many of the ethics of the samurai. The leadership pursued fanatic militarism and ultra-nationalism. To capitalize on the gains of WW I and to compete with the western powers, in 1931 all resources of Japan were committed to expansion through “total war”.

Continuing Development:

Fig 3. Continuing development. Global interaction and Interdependence

The sequela of the bombing of Japan during World War II, particularly in cities like Tokyo, Hiroshima, and Nagasaki was devastation. The death toll was enormous. Among cultural artifacts, traditional Japanese gardens were too, heavily damaged or completely destroyed as a result of the conflict. There is insufficient data for a true count. Hundreds or perhaps thousands of national treasured gardens were lost.

Through military force, the USA substantially altered the Japanese culture early by gunboat and later by atomic bomb diplomacy. The first time was opened the borders to international trade and introduction of advanced technology. The second opportunity opened Japan to multilateral, international, equilateral negotiation and trade without warfare.

Click Namba Park . You Tube link

This leveling of the field has allowed the Japanese people to cooperate with other nations and peoples. They assimilated and develop new ideas without loosing their identity. They now share their culture with others. The Namba Park is an excellent example of post-modern architecture and garden blended into the urban center of Osaka.

Conclusion

Many factors influenced the Japanese gardens: The Shinto veneration set the basics of the Japanese garden. Once established, the Samurai character and Shinto/Buddhist beliefs pervaded through the culture. My interpretation of the gardens emotes a display of discipline, unwavering moral values, intelligence, honor, and duty. The people of Japan have demonstrated continued adaptablity. The gardens of tomorrow will reflect the constants and the changes.

Period, era and influence and characteristics summarizing the progress of Japanese gardens

Topics for your discussion on the discussion board

Have we answered the question posed in the previous posting? “Can some value in Japanese ethnographic field work be extracted from study of the iconography of Japanese gardens ?” How do you see the evolving relationship of Shinto, Buddhist and Samurai behavior? Please show and interpret examples of your local gardens that reflect the thinking, philosophies or values of your community.

If you have expert knowledge in Japanese gardens please share your thoughts or images in the discussion board. This will help us all learn more.

If you want to enter into a dialogue please use the discussion board and engage in group participation.

NEXT

In our next posting we will explore the three forms of gardens in Japan.

If you wish to express your ideas please use the comment box below.

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Recommendations for film lovers:

Yojimbo by the award winning director Akira Kurosawa

Age of Samurai: Battle for Japan, A period docudrama currently on Netflix directed by Stephen Scott,

Last Samurai Standing a docudrama currently on Netflix staring Tom Cruise, directed by Michihito Fujii

The Last Samurai, A period docudrama on Netflix directed by Edward Zwick,

Reference texts:

•Japan, DK Eyewitness, Penguin House, Dorling Kindersley, 2000

•The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Benedict R., Houghton Mifflin, 1946, 1957, 1967. 2005

•Judgement at Tokyo, Bass G.J., Alfred Knoff, 2023

•Zen Gardens, Masuno S., Tuttle Publishing, 2012

•Japanese Gardens Revealed and Explained, Chard R., Zenibo Marketing, 2013

•Japanese Stone Gardens, Mansfield S., Tuttle Publishing, 2009

#gardens #Japan #Shinto #samurai #Buddism #Shogun # culture #imperialism #history #philosophy #art

Cultural Insights from Japan’s Stunning Garden Landscapes. Part I

INTRODUCTION:

This is the first of a series of postings on gardens in Japan. It is the result of a three-week, September visit in the central area of the island of Honshu, Japan. It focused in the area between Kyoto and Tokyo (Fig 1). This is called the Golden Route. These are my interpretations of observations of this on-site visit supplemented by a review of some of the relevant literature. The gardens are a small sample of complex art forms generated by the Japanese over the past 1000 years. It involves a combination of art, history, philosophy, politics, wealth, power struggles, and a dynamically adaptive way of life. Approximately 15 sites were visited in and around the cities of Osaka, Kyoto, Matsumoto, Nara and Tokyo. From my American and European experiences I found their visual impact emotively stunning. Much of the area seen reminded me of my home in Florida. It was so familiar but so foreign. This led me to ponder the contrasts and parallels of these eastern and western cultures. I was full of questions. I wanted to know what do the Japanese want us to think when we see their gardens ? What do the gardens tell us? What can we learn from the gardens?

There are many important factors that influence the gardens that include geology, geography, ecology, philosophy, and history. Surprisingly, there are similarities and parallels between Japan and America. Follow along with the Everglades Ark for a fascinating exploration.

Geology:

Japan is series of islands that act as a geologic barrier to the pressures of the Pacific Ocean. It is part of the “ring of fire” generated by four massive tectonic plates. Seventy five percent of the islands are mountainous that include volcanoes. It is subjected to the severest forces of nature including, earthquakes, typhoons, tsunamis, tropical storms, and lava eruptions. See Fig 1.

Fig 1. Honshu, Japan, geology and the area of travel
Fig 2. Japanese islands overlying US eastern seaboard

Geography:

The three larger islands of Japan lie, latitudinally, in a position similar to the eastern seaboard of the United States. If overlaped on the USA, they could cover an area extending from Main to Florida and from the Appalachian mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific typhoons are like the Atlantic hurricanes on the coast of North America. They are generated by the warm air and water energy in the western Pacific Ocean. They follow the Kuroshio current that runs northerly along Japan’s eastern coast. This is equivalent to the African Easterly Jet and the Gulf Streams. The water and air streams move northerly along both east coasts east coast.

The weathering of the mountains of both areas have similar erosive effects. Tropical storms slam into the mountains causing erosion of the weathered rocks which is washed downward to the sea. Gravel, sand, and mud flow down their eastern slopes to cover the bedrock topography of the east coasts. This action creates broad deep coastal planes of fertile sedimentary soils ideal for plant growth to flourish. In Japan there is an additional source of nutrients to enrich soil. These are the volcanic effluents which additionally characterize the mineralogy of the land. See Fig 2.

Fig 3. Earth’s most densely populated city seen from the Tokyo tower looks the same in all directions.

Population:

The population of 122 million in Japan is nearly equal to the east coast of the US. The most populous portion of these islands lies in an area similar to the US Carolinas . The Tokyo central part of the city (Fig 3) has 15 million where the population density is 6,363/km2 (16,480/sq mi). The metropolitan area has 41 million where the density is 3,000/km2 (7,900/sq mi). The buildings are generally less than 60 years old because of the effects of American bombing in WW II. The construction materials are mostly steel reinforced concrete and glass; not wood. This image begs the question; Where are the gardens? This series of postings shows how I tried to attain understanding.

WHAT IS NEXT:

In postings still to follow, we will discuss interactions of all these factors and the probable anthropologic significance of Japanese gardens. Additionally, we will confront a question. Can some part of Japanese ethnographic field work be extracted from study of the iconography of Japanese gardens ?

SUMMARY:

The soil, water and weather are fundamental to the materials and design of Japanese gardens. The area visited was subtropical. During the three weeks of the trip, the midday temperature averaged 950 F and the humidity was nearly 90%. The daytime sky was mostly cloudless. In the month of travel, the island experienced two typhoons. It was just like home in Florida! But it wasn’t.

If you wish to express your ideas please use the comment area below.

If you want to enter into a dialogue please use the discussion board and follow the group participation.

If you wish to be notified of future postings please enter your email and click on Subscribe.

References:

•Japan, DK Eyewitness, Penguin House, Dorling Kindersley, 2000

•The Chrysanthemum and the Sword, Benedict R., Houghton Mifflin, 1946, 1957, 1967. 2005

•Judgement at Tokyo, Bass G.J., Alfred Knoff, 2023

•Zen Gardens, Masuno S., Tuttle Publishing, 2012

•Japanese Gardens Revealed and Explained, Chard R., Zenibo Marketing, 2013

•Japanese Stone Gardens, Mansfield S., Tuttle Publishing, 2009

#Japan #weather # typhoon #subtropical #Honshu #mountains #soil #volcano #soil #ethnography #

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